In February of 1451 sultan Murad died and he was succeeded by his son Muhammad, who was barely twenty years old. Constantine Palaeologos seemed to be happy when the young sultan promised to maintain the peaceful coexistence of Greeks and Turks in Byzantium, and continuing his father's policy.

Prophetic conversation

When the emperor met Frantzis's faithful partner and diplomatic representative, who had just returned from a diplomatic mission abroad, they had the following conversation:
Emperor: I'll tell you the good news only if you congratulate me. Murad has died and his son accepted to keep peace with us.
Frantzis: My Lord, these are not good, but very bad news.
Emperor: Why?
Frantzis: Because Murad was old and had failed when he attacked Constantinople. After that he never attempted again. His son though is young and has been hostile to the Christians since childhood. He will threaten and act against us.
Emperor: You're one of the most prudent and great lords of the empire… Maybe this is God’s plan afterall.
Frantzis: As you wish my king.
As it was proved after two years, in the most tragic way, Frantzis had correctly sensed that the young sultan would be a deadly threat for Byzantium.

Competition

Muhammad had grown up on the edge of Europe and was highly educated. He had the burning desire to conquer and extinguish the Byzantine civilization. Whether it was because of envy, admiration or both, nobody knows why he wanted to defeat the Byzantines. He did not think them inferior, but inwardly admired them and compared himself to them, especially when it came to battle. In the battlefield Muhammad and Palaeologos could not be more different. The latter was more tolerant than he should be, and always had a good word for his generals and soldiers. In fact, he had no other choice as he was ruling over a weak state, which was confined in a triangular castle of an 18 mile perimeter. Since he had no troops he had to be grateful to those who had remained.

On the other hand, Muhammad was merciless and ruled with fear. He didn't hesitate to whip, impale and behead his soldiers when they lost heart during the battles. He used to disgrace and humiliate them in horrible ways, even his generals were being humiliated by him in front of their soldiers. The fear and suffocating pressure he used on the army superiors caused them to voluntarily step down from their positions. The simple soldiers were not only wildly breaking out not against the enemies, but also against their comrades. It is striking that the first attack against Constantinople were defeated by the Byzantians, were slaughtered by the janissaries who followed the attack.

Explosive temper

When three Genovese commercial ships loaded with grain and a Byzantine warship which was accompanying them managed to break the sea siege of Constantinople, Muhammad's reaction was unprecedented. The Byzantines had lined up their fleet in the Golden Horn, the entrance of which had been bolted with a huge iron chain so the Ottoman ships couldn't enter.

Some depopulated watch of Venetian soldiers had settled in a defense tower to safeguard the chain. In the gulf and under the Venetian captain's command 26 galleons had been arrayed, 10 of which were Greek and the rest Genovese, Venetian, Spanish and French. There were small as well as large ships. From the other side awaited 150 fully equipped Ottoman ships.

Even though the Turkish navy was enormous, on the 20th of April 1453 it didn't manage to prevent the four Christian ships from entering the Golden Horn. The Byzantines and thousands of Ottomans watched the battle unfold, the former from the walls and the latter from seashore. Both sides chanted slogans. The sultan himself rode his horse to the shore and watched the battle from very close.

When he saw the Greek and Genovese marines launching liquid fire shots against the enormous Turkish fleet, he furiously ran to the sea, until his horse got into the water. As he was listening to the joyful cheers and the trumpets of the winners sounding joyfully inside the walls, his rage and desire to punish his admiral grew stronger. The next morning he initially commanded his public impalement but afterwards changed his ruling and sentenced the man to whipping. It is said the beating was so violent it caused the admiral's eye to come out of its socket.

He didn't prevent the desecration

After the Fall of Constantinople Muhammad was proven competent but also short-sighted in the way he managed the cultural monuments he has just conquered. It is significant that when he first set foot Hagia Sophia he went to the Altar and prayed. He was impressed by its beauty and glory but recklessly desecrated it. He also allowed the destruction of a beautiful city and the destruction of cultural and religious monuments of global radiance.

His youth and inexperience was the cause of his inconsiderate actions. He destroyed cultural monuments, the value of which escaped him. As the great iconographer Photis Kontoglou said, he conquered a radiant city, with palaces, churches, statues, fountains, bell towers, icons, marbles, books, carved streets, courts of justice, legislative systems, administrative services, higher education institutions, welfare, aqueducts, hospitals, and reduced it to rubble. He didn't show the magnanimity needed and caused delay in its historical progress.

TEXT-PHOTOS: GEORGE ZAFEIROPOULOS

SOURCE: www.greecewithin.com

MORE PHOTOS

The iron chain that the Byzantines used to close up the Golden Horn's way in (War museum of Constantinople).

Ottoman disasters in Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia's paintings were vandalised.

Provisions of fleets in 1453 (War museum of Constantinople).

Panoramic view of the Golden Horn.

The chain closing up the Golden Horn entrance was hitched.

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